Allogroom: Grooming Each Other

• Marmoset parts hair of other with mouth or hands and may remove particles with their teeth
• Positive welfare indicator

Grooming Invite

• Marmoset lies down on back or side next to another individual, frequently elicits allogrooming
• Positive welfare indicator

Nuzzle: Face Nuzzle; Body Nuzzle; Anal Nuzzle

• Marmoset rubs muzzle against the face or body of another
• This video shows a face nuzzle
• Social greeting which may be accompanied by licking and sniffing
• Positive welfare indicator

Body Hug

• Marmoset hugs other with arms
• Response is always an amicable behaviour (e.g. nuzzle, lick)
• This example clip also shows face and body nuzzle between two adult females
• Positive welfare indicator

Face Lick

• Marmoset licks other (most often towards infants)
• Social behaviour which also has a functional, cleaning role when performed on infants
• Licking has been linked improved cognitive development in infants
• Positive welfare indicator

Anal Lick

Share Food

• Marmoset shares food or allows food to be taken when other reaches towards them with hand or mouth (no aggressive behaviour seen)
• Positive welfare indicator

Play Wrestle

• Marmoset performs a grappling motion with hands and feet. The other individual often responds playfully and mutual wrestling is common
• Positive welfare indicator

Play Pounce

• Marmoset pounces rapidly on another during play
• Positive welfare indicator

Play Bite

• Marmoset gives an inhibited bite (playful and not aggressive) to any part of another marmosets’ body
• Positive welfare indicator

Play Somersault

• Marmoset turns a complete turn within mid-air, a somersault, during a play bout
• Positive welfare indicator

Bat

• Marmoset hits another with one or both hands in an amicable context to initiate play or social contact
• Positive welfare indicator

Solitary Play

• Marmosets may play on their own, performing solitary playful behaviours, not directed towards or involving others
• Positive welfare indicator

Chase

• Marmoset pursues another aggressively
• Negative welfare indicator

Cuff

• Marmoset gives a sharp hit with the hand when chastising another marmoset
• Usually performed by an older towards a younger marmoset
• Mildly aggressive (tends to be milder if towards a younger infant)
• Negative welfare indicator if persistent

Snap Bite

• Short sharp bite given to another marmosets’ neck
• Usually seen together with cuff and from an older to a younger individual
• Mildly aggressive
• Negative welfare indicator if persistent

Uninhibited Bite

• Marmoset gives another a strong, aggressive bite
• Usually to the head or limbs and may inflict a bleeding wound
• Negative welfare indicator

Steal Food

• Marmoset takes food directly and rapidly from another (and is sometimes chased by the individual he/she has stolen from)
• Negative welfare indicator if persistent

Anogenital Tail Present

• Presentation of genital area whilst raising the tail
• Displayed by marmosets when threatened
• Negative welfare indicator (especially if persistently directed towards human caregivers)

Feeding

• Marmoset bites into, chews and swallows food

Foraging/Ground Forage

• Marmoset actively searches for food with hand(s) in the substrate (e.g. sawdust; bark chippings, leaf litter)
• Positive welfare indicator

Beg for Food

• Marmoset approaches another tries to solicit food by extending hand or mouth towards another marmoset with food

Stalk and Pounce on Insect (Prey Capture)

• Marmoset approaches stealthily at a crouch and rapidly jumps, bringing their hands together to capture the prey

Gouging

• Marmoset gnaws at wood with teeth
• Marmosets are adapted to gnaw trees to get at the gum (exudate)
• Gouging is a feeding behaviour in the wild but in captivity it is usually a sign of stress if not related to feeding for gum
• Negative welfare indicator if persistent (and not feeding behaviour)

Gouge-scent

• Gouging behaviour is often followed by scent marking

Scent Marking

• Marmoset rubs sternal (tummy) or anogenital area (more commonly) over surface/substrate
• Scent marking performed in the example video is all anogenital
• Observed at a higher frequency in captive relative to wild marmosets
• Negative welfare indicator when excessive

Allomark

• Marmoset lifts tail and rubs genital area on other marmoset

Self-scratch

• Marmoset repeatedly moves hand or foot with claws drawn rapidly across fur
• Negative welfare indicator when excessive as indicates anxiety or a potential skin problem

Self-groom

• Marmoset cleans their fur or skin with their hands or mouth

Calm Locomotion

• Marmoset moves rapidly between locations (walking, running, climbing or jumping with a relaxed gait
• Positive welfare indicator

Agitated Locomotion

• Marmoset moves rapidly between locations (walking, running, climbing or jumping with an exaggerated gait (excluding play contexts); tail may be either extended or arched
• Negative welfare indicator when excessive

Leaping

• Marmosets are capable of leaping across relatively large distances

Vertical Flight

• Sudden startled and direct movement upwards followed by freezing (the startle response)
• Negative welfare indicator when excessive

Resting (Inactive Rest)

• Marmoset is stationary with a relaxed facial expression and with eyes closed or open
• Usually with their tail curled around their body or through their legs
• Positive welfare indicator

Huddling

• Marmosets are resting or sleeping piled on top of one another
• In the wild: marmosets sleep huddled together in tree forks or in dense tangles of vines
• In captivity they like to huddle high up in their enclosure when sleeping at night
• Positive welfare indicator if relaxed

Inactive Alert

• Marmoset is stationary, awake and attentive to their surroundings
• May be actively vigilant (looking all around themselves in an anxious manner)
• Negative welfare indicator when excessive

Mount

• Marmoset mounts another’s back, gripping with hands and feet
• Seen during wrestling play bouts by any marmoset; and by males during copulation

Copulate

• Male marmoset mounts back of female, with their back legs on a solid surface, and thrusts for several bouts

Tongue In-out (Slowly; Quickly)

• Marmoset moves its tongue in and out rhythmically
• Seen in males and females along with other sexual behaviour and also directed at marmosets of the opposite sex in nearby enclosures

Yawn

• Marmoset opens mouth wide and yawns

Nose-rub

• Marmoset rubs nose on surface/substrate

Sneeze

• Marmoset closes eyes, throws head forwards and sneezes

Stereotypical Behaviour

• Repeated circling and weaving behaviour
• Usually occurs when enclosure is too small, so provide more space
• Serious negative welfare indicator

Self-injurious Behaviour

• Excessive self-scratching picking at their hair, biting self, etc.
• Serious negative welfare indicator that requires veterinary intervention